Implement non-formal education for youths successfully
yoonpresoff
In building and developing the nation, the citizens play a central role. There is a large number of citizens who are well-equipped with knowledge, skills, and expertise, and who possess high-level thinking and reasoning abilities. Therefore, the State is actively implementing a comprehensive education system accessible to all, aimed at fostering highly educated individuals and professionals who can contribute to national development and progress. Literacy among citizens is a crucial factor for the development and progress of a country. The 2024 Population and Housing Census indicated a noticeable improvement in the literacy and school attendance of Myanmar’s citizens. The entire population aged 15 and above secured a literacy rate of 92.1 per cent. Moreover, 56.1 per cent of children are currently attending school, and 34.1 per cent have previously attended school. Those who have never attended school account for 7.2 per cent in urban areas and 11.4 per cent in rural areas.
Non-formal education is a valuable educational programme that provides learning opportunities to those who, for various reasons, have been deprived of the chance to study but still wish to pursue education. From 2016 to 2025, under the administration of the Department of Non-Formal and Lifelong Education, a total of 54,280 children received non-formal primary education, and 1,999 children received non-formal middle school education. Between 2016 and 2023, 123 students who began with non-formal primary education were able to successfully pass the matriculation examination.
Among young people, there are those under the age of 15 who do not continue attending school. According to the 2024 Census Summary Report, the main reasons for not continuing school include family responsibilities or helping with household chores, financial difficulties, the need to work, poor health, lack of interest in studying, marriage, pregnancy, and unsafe travel routes, among others. Non-formal education learners are provided opportunities to complete the non-formal middle school education programme. In the 2025-2026 academic year, this programme is being implemented in 29 townships with 2,615 students. Moreover, bridge education programmes are being carried out as a national responsibility, enabling learners of non-formal education to transition to formal schooling or to technical and vocational education. Non-formal education is a valuable educational programme that provides learning opportunities to those who, for various reasons, have been deprived of the chance to study but still wish to pursue education. From 2016 to 2025, under the administration of the Department of Non-Formal and Lifelong Education, a total of 54,280 children received non-formal primary education, and 1,999 children received non-formal middle school education. Between 2016 and 2023, 123 students who began with non-formal primary education were able to successfully pass the matriculation examination. Therefore, for young people who wish to learn but have been unable to attend school for various reasons, programmes of non-formal education, bridge education, and technical and vocational education enable them to continue learning. By expanding access to these programmes, the nation can better nurture and develop the future “worthy sons and daughters” who will contribute to the country’s future.
Taboung is a month distinguished by abundant pleasantness and natural beauty. According to the Myanmar calendar, it is the twelfth and final month of the year, marking the closing chapter before the New Year begins. Astrologically, Taboung falls under the sign of Pisces, symbolized by the fish. Its corresponding lunar mansion is Phalguni, and its seasonal flower, Calophyllum, is blossoming during the month in harmony with the changing climate. As the cool season gradually gives way to summer, the days grow noticeably hot while the nights remain refreshingly cool, creating a unique and balanced atmosphere.In Myanmar’s central dry zone, known as the Anyar region, the name of the month Taboung is closely associated with traditional rural livelihoods. During this month, sap collected from toddy palm trees is boiled and processed into palm jaggery, an important local product and source of income. The clear skies of Taboung are also said to reveal all twelve constellations, adding a sense of cosmic completeness to the month. Regardless of differing explanations about the origin of its name, Taboung is widely regarded as a time that harmoniously gathers the beauty and charm of all seasons into one.Taboung also marks the completion of the agricultural cycle. For farmers, it is harvest time – the season when paddy is gathered, and earnings are realized. With financial relief after months of labour, communities engage in acts of charity, merit-making, and joyful celebration. Traders travel widely by various means of transport, taking advantage of the dry roads and favourable conditions for commerce.As the weather shifts, pagoda festivals across Myanmar come alive with the resonant sounds of gongs and drums. Among religious celebrations, Taboung festivals are the most vibrant and well-attended. Many annual Buddha Pujaniya festivals, regularly held at temples and stupas throughout Myanmar, take place during this month. These events are not only expressions of devotion to the Lord Buddha but also treasured cultural traditions through which Buddhists seek to help Buddhism flourish and endure.Taboung also marks the completion of the agricultural cycle. For farmers, it is harvest time – the season when paddy is gathered, and earnings are realized. With financial relief after months of labour, communities engage in acts of charity, merit-making, and joyful celebration. Traders travel widely by various means of transport, taking advantage of the dry roads and favourable conditions for commerce.As schools close for holidays due to gradual raising the tempoerature of the weather, families embark on pilgrimages to visit ancient pagodas and sacred sites. Thus, Taboung is not merely a time for leisure, but a season of spiritual reflection, communal unity, and shared happiness. For the people of Myanmar, it stands as a distinguished month that blends worldly fulfilment with spiritual uplift, truly deserving its description as a time adorned with abundant grace and beauty.gnlm
Myanmar’s Ministry of Health has announced that a nationwide effort will be carried out to completely eradicate the poliovirus in Myanmar. This will be implemented both during the regional immunization days from 23 to 25 January 2026 and the national immunization days from 20 to 22 February 2026.A nationwide assessment was conducted to identify townships at risk of poliovirus transmission. As a result, 171 townships across 16 regions and states were identified as being at risk for polio outbreaks. It has been determined that, during the regional immunization days from 23 to 25 January, approximately 2.83 million children under the age of five will receive additional polio vaccine doses as part of the immunization campaign.In addition, the ministerial announcement stated that approximately 4.60 million children under the age of five will receive immunizations during the National Immunization Days, from 20 to 22 February, including the polio vaccine in the Nay Pyi Taw Council area and in 330 townships across the states and regions.Polio disease can be spread through unhygienic foods and water from person to person. The virus can damage the central nervous system. Even if a child contracts the polio virus in one part of the world, children in all countries remain at risk of infection. This is because the virus can easily enter countries that have been declared polio-free and can quickly infect those who have not yet been vaccinated. Therefore, the World Health Organization has warned that if countries fail to completely eradicate the polio virus, around 200,000 new cases could occur worldwide within the next ten years.In this initiative, people from all walks of life are expected to cooperate with the Ministry of Health in coming immunization activities. During the Regional Immunization Days and National Immunization Days, the Ministry will provide guidance to ensure the participation of primary healthcare workers at all levels. Government bodies, health departments, and related agencies from each state and region, as well as non-governmental social organizations, will work together to carry out the activities, with support and participation from the public.Polio disease can be spread through unhygienic foods and water from person to person. The virus can damage the central nervous system. Even if a child contracts the polio virus in one part of the world, children in all countries remain at risk of infection. This is because the virus can easily enter countries that have been declared polio-free and can quickly infect those who have not yet been vaccinated. Therefore, the World Health Organization has warned that if countries fail to completely eradicate the polio virus, around 200,000 new cases could occur worldwide within the next ten years.Polio cannot be completely cured, but efforts can be made to prevent outbreaks of the polio virus in advance. However, if countries around the world delay eradicating polio, their children could become victims of the disease in a short time. Therefore, everyone should ensure that their children receive the polio vaccination during the upcoming National Immunization Day to protect their future.gnlm
AbstractThis article examines the historical origins of corporal punishment, the psychological mechanisms of shame, and the role of social norms in shaping punitive practices. Integrating research from anthropology, behavioural psychology, and moral philosophy, it argues that pain-based correction is an archaic technology of social control that suppresses behaviour without fostering insight. Shame, as a socially mediated emotion, reinforces conformity but undermines internal moral development. Contemporary evidence supports a shift from punitive to restorative models of justice, emphasizing understanding, relational accountability, and cognitive transformation.1. IntroductionAcross cultures and historical periods, societies have relied on pain – physical, emotional, and social – as a means of regulating behaviour. Corporal punishment, public humiliation, and moral condemnation were long believed to cultivate discipline, responsibility, and moral improvement. However, modern psychological and neuroscientific research challenges these assumptions. Pain may deter, but it does not educate; shame may enforce conformity, but it does not cultivate ethical agency. This article provides a psychoeducational framework for understanding why punitive systems persist, why they fail, and how justice can be reconceptualized as a process of insight rather than suffering.2. Historical Origins of Corporal PunishmentAnthropological evidence suggests that corporal punishment emerged from early human intuitions about power, memory, and morality. In small-scale societies, the ability to inflict pain signified authority and maintained social cohesion (Durrant & Ensom, 2012). Pain was assumed to be memorable and therefore effective in preventing future wrongdoing. Many religious and cultural traditions interpreted suffering as a form of moral purification, reinforcing the belief that pain could correct character (Garland, 1990).These assumptions were not grounded in empirical evidence but in survival-driven reasoning and hierarchical social structures. Pain was used because it was immediate, visible, and required no cognitive explanation.3. Behaviourism and the Limits of PunishmentTwentieth-century behavioural psychology attempted to formalise these intuitions. Skinner’s operant conditioning framework demonstrated that punishment can suppress behaviour but does not teach alternative responses (Skinner, 1953). Punishment produces short-term compliance but fails to generate durable behavioural change.Milgram’s obedience experiments further revealed that individuals comply with authority under threat, not because they internalize moral principles but because they fear consequences or displace responsibility (Milgram, 1974). Neuroscientific research confirms that pain activates threat-related neural circuits, inhibiting the reflective processes required for learning and moral reasoning (LeDoux, 1996).The empirical conclusion is clear: punishment controls behaviour but does not cultivate understanding.4. Shame as a Social TechnologyAs societies became more complex, physical punishment was supplemented – or replaced – by shame, a socially mediated form of emotional pain. Shame arises when individuals perceive themselves as failing to meet social expectations or norms (Tangney & Dearing, 2002). It is relational, contingent on the gaze and judgment of others.Shame functions as a powerful regulator of behaviour because it threatens one’s social belonging. However, its psychological effects are often maladaptive:• It promotes concealment rather than accountability.• It undermines self-worth rather than strengthening moral agency.• It encourages compliance to avoid exclusion, not ethical reflection.Shame, therefore, operates as a mechanism of social control, not moral development.5. Social Norms as the Architecture of AppraisalSocial norms constitute an invisible courtroom in which individuals are continuously evaluated. These norms define acceptable behaviour and determine the boundaries of honour, disgrace, and legitimacy (Durkheim, 1915). Corporal punishment and shame both rely on the assumption that the group’s judgment is correct and that deviation is inherently wrong.Yet norms are often shaped by historical contingencies, power dynamics, and cultural biases. Punishment based on norms risks reinforcing inequality rather than promoting justice (Foucault, 1977). Norms can stabilize communities, but they can also perpetuate harm.6. Justice: Self, Others, and the CommunityA psychoeducational understanding of justice requires distinguishing three domains:6.1 Justice to the SelfThis involves cultivating self-reflection, responsibility, and dignity. Punishment often damages the self by inducing fear, shame, or internalised worthlessness (Nathanson, 1992).6.2 Justice to OthersTrue accountability requires repairing harm, restoring trust, and acknowledging impact. Punishment rarely facilitates relational repair; it isolates rather than reconnects (Zehr, 2002).6.3 Justice to the CommunityCommunities require safety and shared values, but punitive systems often satisfy collective anger rather than collective wisdom. They prioritise retribution over rehabilitation (Braithwaite, 1989).7. Pain as Deterrent Versus Pain as KnowledgePain can interrupt behaviour, but it cannot generate understanding. It activates survival mechanisms, not learning mechanisms. Sustainable behavioural change requires:• cognitive insight• emotional regulation• empathy• opportunities for restitution• supportive relational contextsPunishment provides none of these conditions.8. Contemporary Rethinking of CorrectionModern justice systems, educational frameworks, and therapeutic models increasingly recognize that:• Learning requires psychological safety (Porges, 2011).• Insight requires reflection, not fear.• Responsibility requires agency, not coercion.Restorative and rehabilitative approaches emphasize dialogue, meaning-making, and relational accountability. They aim to transform behaviour by strengthening internal motivation rather than imposing an external threat.9. ConclusionPain and shame are ancient technologies of social control. They suppress behaviour but do not cultivate moral understanding. Contemporary psychoeducational evidence demonstrates that justice grounded in insight, empathy, and relational repair is more effective, more humane, and more aligned with human psychological development.Punishment controls the body; shame controls belonging; only understanding transforms the mind.ReferencesBraithwaite, J (1989). Crime, Shame and Reintegration. Cambridge University Press.Durrant, JE, & Ensom, R (2012). Physical punishment of children: Lessons from 20 years of research. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 184 (12), 1373-1377.Durkheim, E (1915). The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life. George Allen & Unwin.Foucault, M (1977). Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. Pantheon.Garland, D (1990). Punishment and Modern Society: A Study in Social Theory. University of Chicago Press.LeDoux, J (1996). The Emotional Brain. Simon & Schuster.Milgram, S (1974). Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View. Harper & Row.Nathanson, DL (1992). Shame and Pride: Affect, Sex, and the Birth of the Self. WW Norton.Porges, SW (2011). The Polyvagal Theory: Neurophysiological Foundations of Emotions, Attachment, Communication, and Self-Regulation. WW Norton.Skinner, BF (1953). Science and Human Behaviour. Macmillan.Tangney, JP, & Dearing, RL (2002). Shame and Guilt. Guilford Press.Zehr, H (2002). The Little Book of Restorative Justice. Good Books.gnlm
It is essential to have an abundant pool of educated human resources for a country’s development. Without knowledge and skills, it is not possible to successfully carry out processes in politics, the economy, or social affairs. Therefore, for the future development of the nation, all stakeholders must work together to ensure the emergence of a large number of educated human resources with strong morale and discipline.Educated human resources are essential for national development. Therefore, although the Basic Education Law stipulates compulsory primary education, in line with changing times and circumstances, the government during its term has made arrangements to ensure that every citizen can pursue education up to the basic education middle school level (KG+9). Achievements have already been made, and those efforts will continue to be carried out effectively and on a broader scale. It is necessary to emphasize increasing student promotion rates between grade levels.In today’s era, which is an era of knowledge, only through education can one secure a stable livelihood. Every country carries out its development process through educated people, making the cultivation of a large pool of educated citizens extremely important. Therefore, for national development, it is essential that the State, together with parents, the public, and teachers, work collectively and earnestly to ensure the emergence of a strong body of educated human resources equipped with knowledge and skills.Concerning education, parents are urged to prioritize their children’s education so that their children can improve their lives and enjoy a better standard of living than their own. To support the advancement of national education and to enable teachers to pursue master’s degrees and higher-level studies, some education degree colleges are being upgraded into education universities. For the future of the nation, it is also necessary for teachers to work together to nurture highly qualified human resources with strong morale and discipline.Only through education can people develop the ability to critically distinguish between right and wrong and between causes and effects, and thereby better contribute to the interests of their communities and the nation. Therefore, education staff must diligently carry out their teaching responsibilities and provide students with knowledge in both academic learning and social skills. The State, for its part, has approved annual increases in education expenditures and is providing support from all aspects to expand and strengthen the education sector, while education personnel must also make dedicated and tireless efforts within their respective fields.In today’s era, which is an era of knowledge, only through education can one secure a stable livelihood. Every country carries out its development process through educated people, making the cultivation of a large pool of educated citizens extremely important. Therefore, for national development, it is essential that the State, together with parents, the public, and teachers, work collectively and earnestly to ensure the emergence of a strong body of educated human resources equipped with knowledge and skills.gnlm
At present, the most prominent seasonal festival is the Htamanè festival. Traditional Myanmar Htamanè is a sweet and fragrant food made by Myanmar people using glutinous rice. Because the cooked glutinous rice is repeatedly stirred and kneaded – similar to the process of making glue or paste – it is called Htamanè. As it is prepared with generous amounts of glutinous rice, coconut, peanuts, ginger, sesame oil, and sesame seeds, it is also known as hnanè-hmanè (sesame Htamanè).The purpose of making Htamanè during that month is that, since it is prepared from glutinous rice, the natural sticky quality of the rice, combined with the vigorous stirring required, causes heat to build up through perspiration, dispelling coldness and making it well suited to the climate of that month. During the same month, Htamanè making competitions are held in various locations by government departments and residents of wards, and villages alike, with participants wearing matching uniforms.During the Htamanè preparation, strong and energetic men stir vigorously, sweating as they work together in unity and joy. In doing so, they combine mutual affection with the cool seasonal weather, making the activity beneficial for their health. If one wishes to experience and appreciate the delicious taste and meaningful significance of Htamanè, friends and visitors from around the world can come to Myanmar to observe, participate, and enjoy this tradition firsthand.The judges do not evaluate the entries solely on taste; they also emphasize the team’s unity, morale, organization, cleanliness, and cooperation. In this way, Htamanè is a food that highlights solidarity and harmony. Moreover, with its rich and pleasant flavour, it is a traditional Myanmar delicacy that is especially enjoyable to eat.The traditional Myanmar Htamanè festival is a symbol of unity, and elders have long said that the good taste of the Htamanè produced is itself a sign of the success of that unity. The preparation of Htamanè is not done merely for simple enjoyment. It embodies unity, cooperation, leadership, obedience to guidance according to seniority, mutual consideration, and collective encouragement.In Htamanè making of events, one can observe the admirable and cherished customs of Myanmar society. From such dedicated and collective effort, delicious Htamanè is produced. During the month of Tabodwe, preparing traditional Myanmar Htamanè with care and devotion and offering it to members of the Sangha, as well as sharing it with the public as an act of communal charity (Satuditha), has been a heart-warming tradition passed down continuously from ancient Myanmar times to the present day.During the Htamanè preparation, strong and energetic men stir vigorously, sweating as they work together in unity and joy. In doing so, they combine mutual affection with the cool seasonal weather, making the activity beneficial for their health. If one wishes to experience and appreciate the delicious taste and meaningful significance of Htamanè, friends and visitors from around the world can come to Myanmar to observe, participate, and enjoy this tradition firsthand.gnlm
A child is like wax, capable of being shaped and moulded according to guidance and care. When early childhood care is applied effectively, children can grow into individuals with high talent, creativity, and the ability to contribute meaningfully to society. By nurturing children in their formative years, elders can confidently entrust the future of the community and nation to them.Recognizing this, the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Social Welfare, Relief and Resettlement recently organized an Early Childhood Care and Development (ECCD) Trainer Course for primary school teachers. Held at the Ministry of Social Welfare, Relief and Resettlement, the course aims to ensure that primary school-aged children are well-prepared for school and comfortable in their learning environment. By facilitating smooth and effective learning, the course plays a crucial role in supporting the long-term development of human potential.Upon completing the training, participants are expected to apply their newly acquired knowledge and perspectives to enhance their teaching practices. When effectively implemented, the skills and insights gained from the ECCD course will help teachers improve the quality of education, ensuring that children develop holistically and that the next generation is equipped to carry society forward.The training program equips participants with a comprehensive understanding of early childhood care and development policies, children’s rights, and child psychology. Trainees gain knowledge of how to promote balanced development of children’s five senses and how these skills connect to broader contexts, including the family, community, and national development. Such holistic training aims to produce well-rounded, capable human resources who can grow sustainably and contribute to society in multiple ways.ECCD activities are essential for cultivating human resources with strong morals, a positive mindset, social skills, and public-mindedness. The course also emphasizes fostering children’s health, life habits, and overall well-being. By understanding the nature of children and applying effective educational practices, primary teachers can guide their pupils toward becoming responsible, creative, and competent individuals.Both ministries are committed to producing highly qualified primary teachers who can apply the knowledge and techniques gained from the course. The training program is planned to be conducted four times between January and April 2026, offering ample opportunities for teachers across the country.During the course, instructors provide both theoretical and practical guidance on a wide range of topics. These include children’s nature and basic needs, learning through play, child development, classroom management, child psychology, learning fundamentals, collaboration with families and communities, teaching children requiring special care, language development, early literacy, observing children, and understanding the transitional periods in childhood.Upon completing the training, participants are expected to apply their newly acquired knowledge and perspectives to enhance their teaching practices. When effectively implemented, the skills and insights gained from the ECCD course will help teachers improve the quality of education, ensuring that children develop holistically and that the next generation is equipped to carry society forward.gnlm
